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Introduction
Gender and religion play significant roles in shaping societal norms and expectations. But is this influence equally valid or accurate for both men and women? Major world religions were largely founded by men, and their institutional structures continue to be dominated by male perspectives. This often translates into portrayals of women as secondary or supportive figures, with religious texts and practices crafted around male experiences. Women’s roles have frequently been confined to nurturing or assisting rather than leading. Yet, studies suggest an intriguing paradox: social scientists argue that women are universally more religious than men across societies, cultures, and faiths. Some sociologists even propose a biological basis for this gender gap, suggesting that hormonal differences, like higher testosterone in men, may influence this discrepancy. This reflective essay examines this very question of women being inherently considered as secondary citizens across three major religions—Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam—as case studies.
Women’s Roles in Religion: A Look at Hinduism
Exploring gender differences within specific religions brings new layers to light. Consider Hinduism, the most prevalent religion in India, where I have personally observed the complexities surrounding women’s roles. Unlike many other religions, Hinduism uniquely venerates female deities—Goddesses like Durga, fierce and powerful, and Kali, unyielding and relentless, embody supreme strength. Here, femininity is celebrated as a divine force, with festivals like Durga Puja and Navratri placing women at the heart of worship. These celebrations honour goddesses as embodiments of strength, wisdom, and creation itself—feminine power seen as so potent that it often surpasses that of male deities. Here, womanhood isn’t just respected; it’s exalted, and femininity itself is deified. However, Hinduism also presents a contradictory picture. Alongside these empowering symbols, festivals like Karva, Teej, Gangaur, and Ahoi Ashtami, where women keep fasts for their husbands and children can portray women as catalysts for their husbands' success and longevity or as caretakers devoted to their families' well-being. Such rituals perpetuate the notion that a woman's worth is tied to her role within the family, limiting her recognition as an independent individual with her own identity and desires. This duality raises an uncomfortable question: Are women genuinely valued as powerful individuals, or are they primarily cast in supporting roles? Do common women, as prescribed by Hinduism, hold agency or social power outside their identities as homemakers or caretakers?
Women's Agency and Social Control in Hinduism
The question remains debatable, as religious texts and societal customs continue to send mixed messages. The Vedas—central to Hindu life philosophies and moral codes—offer complex representations of women, reflecting both reverence and restrictions. While the Vedas do speak of women who were scholars, leaders, and independent, societal interpretations have often diluted or reinterpreted these examples to fit more traditional roles. In ancient India, women from higher varnas, such as Brahmins and Kshatriyas, faced significant limitations despite their social status. They were often not recognized as Brahmins nor permitted to serve as priests, reinforcing the notion that direct communication with the divine was primarily reserved for men. Practices such as sati, where widows self-immolated on their husbands' funeral pyres, exemplified the harsh reality that a woman’s entire existence was tied to her husband’s life. Similarly, customs like pallu, the practice of women covering their heads or faces as a sign of modesty, along with child marriage and restricted mobility, further emphasized a patriarchal framework that defined women primarily through their relationships with men. Thus, tension persists between the veneration of goddesses and the real-life constraints placed on women. Exploring this further requires not only revisiting ancient texts but also examining how these narratives have been reshaped over time. Are women respected as true equals in practice, or are they elevated only in theory and imagery? The intersection of gender and religion, particularly in Hinduism, continues to be a dynamic, evolving conversation—one that is both enlightening and perhaps a call to re-examine how we perceive gender roles in spirituality and beyond.
A Look at Hindu Texts
To understand the complexity of the picture of women, painted by the fabric of religion, a look at the ancient texts can provide valuable insights. The Devi Sukta hymn of Rigveda, a scripture of Hinduism, declares the feminine energy as the essence of the universe, the one who creates all matter and consciousness, the eternal and infinite, the metaphysical and empirical reality (Brahman), the soul, (supreme self) of everything. But again the dichotomy prevails, which is evident through this conversation between Uma and her husband Shiva. For a woman, claims Uma, her husband is a God, her husband is her friend, and her husband is her high refuge. A woman's duties include physical and emotional nourishment, reverence and fulfilment of her husband and her children. Their happiness is her happiness, she observes the same vows as those that are observed by her husband, her duty is to be cheerful even when her husband or her children are angry, being there for them in adversity or sickness, is regarded as truly righteous in her conduct. Beyond her husband and family, her duty is to be cheerful of heart and humble with friends and relatives and do the best she can for friends and guests. This really puts the actual stand of women in Hinduism on a pedestal, as one part refers to the feminine as the creator of the universe, while the other part, summarizes the existence of women into being cheerful adornments of their husbands and children. It is as if, ‘femininity’ as a concept is idolized, but ‘women’ in practice, hold no part or power in it. Similarly, the Anushasana Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata has several chapters dedicated to the discussion about the duties and rights of women, showcasing a mixed picture. The goddess asserts she does not reside in a woman who is sinful, unclean, always disagreeing with her husband, has no patience or fortitude, is lazy, and quarrelsome with her neighbours and relatives.
Similar arguments hold true for the two great epics of Hindu literature. In the Mahabharata, the main female character, Draupadi, becomes the wife of all five Pandavas due to a misunderstanding. Upon their return with Draupadi, Mata Kunti, unaware of what they have brought, instructs them to share equally, leading Draupadi to have five husbands. Later, Yudhishthira, in a moment of weakness, wagers Draupadi in a dice game against Duryodhana. When he loses, she is publicly humiliated, her dignity directly tied to her husband's honour. This humiliation becomes one of the pivotal causes of the Mahabharata’s devastating war. Much of this suffering might have been avoided if women were given agency and not merely seen as extensions of their husbands. In the Ramayana, the portrayal of Sita presents a similar contradiction. Although she is respected, honoured, and depicted as wise, Sita is largely confined to her role as the ideal wife and homemaker, deeply loyal to Rama. After Rama rescues her, however, he succumbs to societal pressures and demands that Sita undergo a trial by fire to prove her purity. This painful test ultimately leads to their separation. Both epics reflect the complex and often limiting roles imposed on women, highlighting the tragic consequences of denying them autonomy.
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A Look at Christianity
Christianity, with its deeply patriarchal roots, has historically placed women in roles defined by submission and limited autonomy. From the very beginning, the biblical narrative sets the tone: Eve, created from Adam’s rib, is often portrayed as secondary and dependent. This dynamic is further cemented by the story of the Fall in Genesis, where Eve is the first to yield to temptation, eating the forbidden fruit and convincing Adam to do the same. For centuries, this has been used to blame women for humanity’s original sin, painting them as morally weaker, more susceptible to error, and, ultimately, in need of male guidance to stay on the “right path.” This narrative has shaped societal attitudes, justifying the control of women under the guise of spiritual protection.
This imbalance is especially evident in Christian traditions around marriage, where the union of “man and wife” is presented as hierarchical. Biblical passages like Ephesians 5:22-24, which instruct wives to “submit to their husbands,” have long been interpreted to mean that men hold authority in the home, while women’s primary role is to support, obey, and nurture. Even in modern interpretations that emphasize partnership and mutual respect, the shadow of these traditional roles often lingers, with women disproportionately expected to maintain the emotional and spiritual stability of the family. The figure of the Virgin Mary plays a significant role in defining what is expected of women in Christianity. Mary is celebrated for her purity, her virginity, and her role as a selfless, devoted mother. While her story is one of grace and strength, the ideals she represents can feel suffocating. Women are often told to aspire to her example—modest, chaste, nurturing, and obedient—limiting the scope of how they are allowed to express themselves. Mary’s worth is tied to her virginity and maternal devotion, in stark contrast to male biblical figures, whose legacies are shaped by their actions, leadership, and faith, rather than their sexual morality. This narrow framework leaves little room for women to define their own worth outside these confines.
On the other hand, figures like Mary Magdalene, often misrepresented as a repentant sinner, reveal another troubling pattern: the tendency to view women as either paragons of virtue or fallen beings in need of redemption. These dichotomies—Madonna or Magdalene, pure or sinful—have reinforced societal expectations that women must either strive for unattainable perfection or face judgment and marginalisation. Leadership roles within Christianity further highlight this disparity. In Catholic and Orthodox traditions, women are still barred from the priesthood, with leadership positions reserved exclusively for men. This exclusion is often justified by pointing to Jesus’ male apostles, despite arguments that this reflects the societal norms of his time rather than a divine mandate. While some Protestant denominations now allow women to serve as pastors or clergy, the progress is uneven, and female leaders often face additional scrutiny and resistance compared to their male counterparts.
Historically, this institutional framework extended beyond church walls to shape society’s treatment of women. For centuries, women were discouraged from pursuing education or careers, with their primary purpose seen as serving their husbands and raising children. Expectations of modesty, drawn from verses like 1 Timothy 2:9, demanded that women dress and behave in ways that uphold their role as moral guardians of the family. Even today debates around issues like reproductive rights, divorce, and women’s leadership in churches echo these long-standing attitudes, reflecting the tension between tradition and the push for equality.
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A Look at Islam
In Islam, religious structures also prioritise male authority in many areas, though the faith’s principles emphasise respect and honour for women. However, some interpretations and practices have restricted women's autonomy, often confining them to defined roles within the family and community. The practice of veiling, for example, is intended to preserve modesty, but it also symbolizes the controlled visibility of women in society. For many, the veil signifies protection and devotion, yet it can be interpreted as a restriction on women’s freedom to present themselves as independent individuals. Moreover, the authority within marital relationships often skews toward men. Muslim wives are traditionally expected to be devoted to their husbands and families, often curtailing their opportunities and roles outside the home. In many Islamic societies, divorce remains more accessible for men, with men possessing the unilateral right to initiate it through practices like triple talaq, where a husband can dissolve the marriage simply by stating "talaq" three times. While this practice has been banned or restricted in some countries, its historical prevalence left women vulnerable to sudden repudiation, often without support or safeguards. Conversely, women seeking divorce frequently encounter significant procedural and societal barriers, including male-dominated legal systems and the requirement of consent from male guardians. This imbalance is further entrenched through practices like unequal inheritance laws, where a woman is entitled to half the share of a male counterpart, perpetuating financial dependence. Polygamy, which permits men to marry up to four wives while denying women similar rights, also reinforces male dominance within marriage. Women often face restrictions on their personal freedom, such as mandatory dress codes like the hijab, niqab, or burqa, which, while a choice for some, are imposed on others through societal pressure or legal enforcement, as seen in Afghanistan under the Taliban. Moreover, segregation in religious spaces often excludes women from full participation. In many communities, women are barred from entering mosques or relegated to separate, less prominent areas, limiting their engagement in public worship and religious leadership. Guardianship laws in countries like Saudi Arabia (though recently reformed) historically required women to seek male permission for fundamental decisions such as travel, marriage, or education, placing them in a position of dependency. In extreme cases, cultural practices like honour killings, justified in the name of religion, subject women to violence for perceived offences such as rejecting arranged marriages or being accused of adultery. Additionally, certain interpretations of Quranic verses, such as 4:34, have been used to condone domestic violence, further exacerbating the subjugation of women within private and public spheres.
These practices, rooted in both cultural traditions and specific interpretations of religious doctrine, perpetuate a framework where women’s autonomy and rights are significantly constrained. They reflect a dichotomy between the acknowledgement of women’s roles and the systematic limitations placed on their independence, raising critical questions about reconciling tradition with evolving views on gender equality and justice.
Conclusion: Rethinking Religion's Role in Women’s Lives
This discussion raises a fundamental question: Is religion, as traditionally structured, truly beneficial for women, and is it as relevant for women as it is for men? After all, why should anyone devote themselves to a belief system that has historically relegated them to second-class status? While it’s undeniable that many religious traditions, in their original forms, contain aspects that constrain women’s freedom and agency, the way religion is practised today is shifting. In modern times, the meaning of religion has evolved. Women today are more aware, and many are actively reshaping their religious environments to foster growth and equality. They are challenging traditional norms and redefining religious practices to better fit a collective, inclusive way of life. In Hinduism, practices like kanyadaan, where the bride is given away by her father, are increasingly being challenged. Many couples now choose to emphasise partnership in their wedding rituals, celebrating mutual consent rather than the traditional notion of transferring ownership. In Christianity, women are breaking barriers by serving as pastors and bishops in many denominations. In Islam, women are increasingly participating in leading prayers and sermons within their communities. For example, in countries like Turkey and Indonesia, women-led mosques have emerged, allowing women to worship and engage in religious discussions in a more inclusive environment.
As they reclaim their narratives, women are working toward a vision of faith that supports their individuality and offers a space for personal empowerment within a shared spiritual journey. This essay reflects on that transformation—acknowledging both the obstacles of the past and the resilience of women today in creating a future where faith aligns with equality.
By Niyati Gupta
Niyati Gupta, a first-year English Honours student at Hindu College, is deeply passionate about psychology, politics, and literature. She is keen to explore everyday social dynamics and their broader sociological impacts, aiming to unravel the complexities of human behavior and societal structures.
References
1.See Miller, Alan S., and Rodney Stark. 2002. “Gender and Religiousness: Can Socialization Explanations Be Saved?” American Journal of Sociology.
2.The Gender Gap in Religion Around the World, Pew Research Centre
Well researched and aptly presented!
❤️
brilliant work!
Outstanding!
Brilliant